Shadow language education in rural Kazakhstan: A participatory exploration of youth perspectives on English private tutoring

This mixed-methods study explores the experiences and perceptions of primary school students (aged 11–12) regarding English private tutoring (EPT) in rural Kazakhstan, addressing a significant gap in shadow education research concerning young people in underrepresented rural contexts. The study investigates the prevalence, motivations and perceived effectiveness of EPT, as well as its implications for educational equity in Central Asia. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire completed by 662 students across seven rural schools, followed by participatory methods involving group interviews and student-generated drawings with 42 students. Guided by EPT's four dimensions (location, formality, locus of control and pedagogy), the analysis reveals that 33% of students participated in EPT, primarily to improve school performance and pursue long-term goals, such as studying abroad. While face-to-face EPT remained the most common format, online tutoring expanded significantly after the pandemic. Most students perceived EPT as more enjoyable and effective than regular schooling, particularly due to personalised instruction and the use of digital tools. However, the financial and emotional burden of EPT was evident among many families. The findings highlight persistent educational inequalities and emphasise the need for targeted policy interventions to enhance access to highly selective schools, regulate the private tutoring market and better understand the role of online tutoring in rural contexts.