Can We Link Cause and Effect in Landscape Evolution?

In this paper we argue that there are fundamental limitations on geomorphological models, which may prevent linking cause and effect. These limitations are not governed by technology, model complexity, or monitoring resolution, but are inherent in the dynamics of landscape evolution itself. This is because process thresholds, interactions and feedbacks, as well as time lags in responding to the external forcing, mean that geomorphological response in the landscape can be non-linear. This can obscure the relation between the forcing signal and the response signal to the extent that it may not be possible to link cause to effect, or vice-versa.