An analysis of macro-environment factors influencing the governance of tree planting schemes in Africa

Tree planting schemes in Africa are increasingly promoted for their potential to address environmental degradation, enhance biodiversity, and support socioeconomic development. Yet, complex and interrelated macro-environmental factors constrain the achievement of these targets. While past studies have assessed local-level technical, ecological, and governance challenges influencing the success of tree planting schemes, they have often overlooked the influence of broader macro-environmental factors. In this study, we analysed the influence of these macro-environmental factors by reviewing 143 publications, interviewing 19 key informants, and participating in 8 related events across four African countries (Algeria, Cameroon, Ethiopia, and South Africa). We employed the macroenvironment analysis framework called PESTEL (Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Ecological, and Legal) to analyse the influence of these factors supplemented by polycentric governance and socio-technical transition theories. Our findings revealed that while PESTEL factors dominate the discourse, historical legacies, institutional instability, and emergent cross-sectoral factors also play critical roles. Accordingly, we expanded the PESTEL framework to HPESTELI+, incorporating Historical (H), Institutional (I), and a flexible ‘+’ dimension to capture context-specific influences. The HPESTELI+ framework offers a comprehensive diagnostic tool for policymakers and practitioners to identify cross-cutting and context-specific factors that support sustainable tree planting. We argue that a holistic understanding of these macro-environmental factors is crucial for enhancing governance and the long-term sustainability of tree planting schemes in Africa and beyond.