A governance framework for the design and evaluation of tree planting schemes

Tree planting has excellent potential to alleviate the profound negative impacts of global environmental change. However, tree planting schemes often involve complex social, political, economic, technical, and biological dimensions. In improving the performance of tree planting schemes, governance tools and frameworks have been developed by different stakeholders over the past years. In this study, we systematically reviewed existing literature and synthesised qualitative information on the governance of tree planting schemes. We searched five databases, and, after screening the abstracts and full texts, we identified 93 publications from six continents. The publications contained relevant insights on the governance of tree planting scheme practices, processes, tools, frameworks, and guidelines. We identified key issues and thematic concepts and then categorised them into five overarching structural phases or processes (initiation, planning, intervention, monitoring and evaluation, and sustainability) and four influencing factors (actors, resources, information, and legal instruments) with their governance elements. Using these, we propose a governance process framework that we applied to several examples of tree planting schemes worldwide. The framework distinctly integrates the structural phases and influencing factors, which most users can adapt to different tree planting scheme contexts, linking governance inputs and processes. We argue that the framework's flexibility, clarity, and inclusiveness can help guide the governance of tree planting schemes and how they can best address the challenges of global change and sustainable development. Furthermore, our framework can be applied to varying contexts, in whole or in part, depending on the scheme type and purpose. Specifically, the framework can be applied formally and systematically to assess, analyse, monitor, and evaluate governance processes; or plan new schemes.